Connecting with the Ancestors
Stacey K. Close, Ph.D. Project Historical Director
Although the history of African Americans in Hartford is rich and cherished, it began centuries before on the mainland of Africa. People of African ancestry began their history in freedom, not in bondage. With the eventual emergence of the dreaded Atlantic Trade in human beings, their origins also include a strong connection to the Caribbean. Scholars such as John Hope Franklin, Carter G. Woodson, Lorenzo Greene, William Piersen, and others made these observations for decades. While many of the people that created this rich history are no longer in Hartford, they left behind records of their visible and invisible monuments. These monuments are not the typical ones that you might find on the mall in Washington, D.C.; however, they were significant achievements for a people struggling to carve out a place for themselves in Hartford.
One of the earliest recollections of people of African ancestry in Hartford was Louis Berbice. In 1638 Berbice, whose African roots had ties to South America, lived in the area of the Dutch Fort. Berbice’s owner killed him the following year. Oral history remains an important part of the history of African people in Hartford. A sign once stood at the present location of St. Monica’s Episcopal Church that included information about a “Negro Boy, Peter” that lived among the Dutch in the 1600s. The African presence in Connecticut remained relatively small throughout the 1600s; however, it reached more than 5,000 people during the 1700s. Hartford’s portion of this population included enslaved and free people. They managed to create and carve out a unique African American culture in New England. These individuals went on to aid the growth and development of Hartford. When the American Revolution came, they could be found among the ranks of the veterans of the colonial liberation from England. For those fortunate enough to eventually acquire freedom, some purchased land and farmed; however, it was during the next two centuries that a gradually emancipated and growing free African American community began to build churches, homes, and legacies that remain visible today. The visible monuments they left behind help to tell and create this rich and cherished history.
Churches
The best places to begin in this effort to connect with the ancestors are churches. Faith Congregational Church is the oldest predominantly African American church in Hartford. Established in 1819, Faith has served as a place of worship, meeting place, and developer of leaders. In fact, this congregation became one of the major contributors to the fight to eradicate slavery. Rev. Dr. James W.C. Pennington, one of the greatest leaders ever live in Hartford, wrote, preached, and organized abolition meetings. The fugitive blacksmith stole, who stole himself from slavery, recognized the need to defend the right to be free for other people. The trial of the Amistad captives gave ample opportunity for Pennington and other abolitionists to return Singbeh Pieh and other former captives home. The ranks of the Connecticut 29th regiment of the Civil War included men from what became Faith. While Faith clearly served as the foundation for autonomous organized religion among African Americans, it was not the only African American church of the 19th century. Current congregations such as Metropolitan AME Zion, Union Baptist Church, and Shiloh Baptist Church can also trace their roots to the 19th Century. In the Black Church in the African American Experience C. Eric Lincoln and Lawrence Mamiya refer to the AME Zion denomination as the “freedom church.” Metropolitan certainly meets that height of greatness. While contributing to the effort to eradicate the evils of slavery and racism, AME Zion surpassed a number of denominations in its willingness to ordained women. In fact, in 1922 Metropolitan hosted an evening service with Rev. Mary Small of York, Pennsylvania as the minister for the hour.
Still today, Union Baptist and Shiloh Baptist remain shining lights in the community. Church members relate the church’s beginning a railroad boxcar. Their outreach ministries include after-school educational support and a breakfast ministry for the needy. Although only a small sampling of their efforts, Union continues to be an oasis. Shiloh Baptist was the first group of African American church people to build their own edifice. The name of Rev. Robert Moody, legendary minister, still brings shivers to those that knew him. African American ministers like Moody and those before and after supported and encouraged educational attainment.
The African School and Educators, 19th Century
Long before great educators like Booker T. Washington, and W.E.B. Du Bois, lauded the importance of education, members of Hartford’s African American community organized to educate their children. In the 19th century they developed the African School. While it is difficult to know the specifics on the day to day curriculum instruction, the names of the distinguished faculty are available. Augustus Washington, a local daguerreotypist, taught at the school. His photos of prominent Hartford residents still circulate in a number of sources. Influenced by the colonization movement, Washington eventually moved his family to Liberia. Selah Africanus and Ann Plato were other prominent teachers at the school. While segregation reigned in Hartford, African Americans, in general, were also separated. The local city directory in the 1860s listed African Americans separately from white citizens. One of the most remarkable teachers to come out of Hartford in this period was Rebecca Primus. In fact, she taught children in southern schools during Reconstruction, one of the most volatile periods in U.S. history.
Businesses and Owners, 19th Century
The tradition of owning businesses has a long and storied history. For those in need of a barber, the 19th century African American business community provided such services. The well-respected Holdridge Primus became a co-owner of a store at Main and Syms Street. In 1844 August Washington’s studio was a major destination for people desiring portraits and pictures of family members. For more than 100 years, William Saunders and his descendants operated a tailor shop at the “African Corner” of Talcott Street. In 1921 the family finally closed their shop. In the 19th century Saunders boldly served as the local agent for the Liberator. The owner of the newspaper was William Lloyd Garrison, considered to be one of the most defiant abolitionists of the period. Men such as Emersley Hammerly and Jeremiah Jacobs ran local saloons. R. Sands, another businessman, operated a restaurant.
Businesses and Owners, early 20th Century
Few leaders of the 20th century won as much acclaim as Booker T. Washington. The principal of Tuskegee Institute urged the black masses to learn trades, work with hands, and build businesses. Washington also created the National Negro Business League. The league held meetings throughout the country to inform and educate African American businessmen and ordinary citizens about the accomplishments of African Americans in business. In 1902 G. Grant William, a local barber, also sold African American literature. Leading newspapers such as the Philadelphia Tribune and New York Age were available to those looking to read papers from outside Hartford. Avid readers could pick from the works of Paul Laurence Dunbar, Booker T. Washington, and Pauline Hopkins. Williams became the local representative for Washington’s National Negro Business League. A tireless supporter of the Tuskegee educator Williams played a prominent role in bringing Washington to Hartford for a speaking engagement.
By the time of World War I and the early 1920s, a small and vibrant African American business community was quite visible. The businesses included enterprises such as barbershops, beauty salons, groceries, music studios, restaurants, funeral parlors, billiard parlors, after-hours clubs, taxi services, and boarding houses. Moreland Barbershop offered an opportunity for hair grooming and conversation. Southern migration from the South clearly fostered some of the business growth. For African American women in need of hair styling and pressing, Ella Pittman offered her services to the community. While William and Ella Murray, a local couple, operated a grocery store, Raymond A. Lawson taught music from a studio on Main Street. Anyone hungry meal simply had to venture to Jefferson Banks’ restaurant on Front Street. For people looking for entertainment and billiards, Charles B. Taylor’s poolroom was a frequent stop. Sidney Johnson, proprietor of a funeral parlor was one of the city’s most respected business leaders. One of the most dignified moments in the lives of poor families was the funeral of departed love ones. Johnson provided such services. A local African American also operated a taxi that shuttled people throughout the city. Visitors to the city and local residents also knew that lodging and meals were available at local boarding houses. A perfect example was the one run by Daniel and Sarah Parrish. Although only a small portion of the businesses operated by African Americans, they clearly revealed that African Americans understood the importance of uplift in their community. The African American influences from the South were very apparent in this uplift. People from places such as Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia became solid contributors to this growth.
Businesses and Owners, 1930s-1940s
The “Old Hoover Days” crushed the economic will of a number of families in the country and made families do more with less. The African American business community survived because of the work of ordinary citizens and owners. In 1938 the Hartford Negro Interest Group, as part of “Negro History Week”, decided to highlight the business acumen and work of local barbershops, beauty parlors, dressmakers, tailors, physicians, dentists, funeral directors, dining establishments, and moving companies. Dr. Allen F. Jackson, one of the physicians listed by the group, played an instrumental role in revitalizing the city’s local NAACP. His work eventually led to the national group asking that he join their board. With the coming of World War II, the economic malaise of the depression began to end; however, the struggle for equality remained constant. A group of African American leaders, including Robert “Subway” Lewis, decided to publish the Hartford Chronicle. Lewis was the owner of the Subway. Although not the first African American newspaper published in Hartford, it would prove to be a great activist paper. With George Goodman, editor, and a talented staff, the Chronicle tackled issues of southern racism, local job discrimination, housing inequities, healthcare, and community uplift. Before ending their media efforts, the owners and operators re-organized the paper as the Connecticut Chronicle and New England Bulletin. When it came time to relax, the Sundown Club and Torch Club featured some of the best Jazz music in New England. Lewis’ Subway establishment, another major hotspot, offered drinks, food, and banquet facilities.
Politicians, 20th Century Ascent
In 1847 Augustus Washington flayed Connecticut for its failure to grant the vote to free African Americans in the state. Although the right to vote eventually came in the 19th century, African American politicians would not win office in the city until the 1950s. In 1906 one of the most audacious runs for office came from Dr. Patrick Henry Clay Arms. Arms, a physician, decided to bolt the Republican Party and run as an Independent Republican candidate. Although he lost the election that year, Arms found a way to promote his practice. Over the years, prominent leaders such as Mary T. Seymour, George Goodman, and Dr. Allen Jackson all made unsuccessful runs for office.
Finally, in 1951 Rev. Robert Moody, pastor of Shiloh Baptist Church, won a seat on the school board. A year later, the former veteran of World War I received a stern test. In 1952 the People’s Party made a request host a concert by Paul Robeson at Weaver High School to bolster the upcoming national campaign. With the local citizens watching and listening to the debates about the concert for a communist organization, Moody, who voted with the majority, agreed that Robeson, regardless of his affiliation, had a legal right to sing in Hartford.
Three years after Robeson’s concert, a group of African American leaders approached the powerful local Democratic Party about supporting John Clark, Jr., a highly regarded local funeral director, for the city council. After being rebuffed, this group of African American leaders forged an alliance with the Citizens Charter Committee. An energetic group of leaders hit the streets and helped to elect Clark. The election was a bitter battle with both CCC supporters and democrats arguing that voting irregularities took place. The finally tally led to the election of Clark.
As the years passed, this type of coalition building helped to win seats in the state assembly for Wilfred X. Johnson, Leonard Frazier, Boce Barlow, Jr., Wilber Smith, Carrie Perry, and Thirman Milner. Most African American voters, by the 1950s, remained tied to the Democratic Party. Barlow, a graduate of Howard University and Harvard University Law School, also served a judge in the municipal court. After service on the court, Barlow continued his distinguished career in private practice. In the 1960s, African American voters did cross party lines to vote for Collin Bennett, a West Indian member of the Republican Party. In 1981 Milner was the first African American ever elected mayor of Hartford. After Milner decided not to seek another term, Carrie Perry became the first and only African American woman to be mayor of major city in New England.